{"id":1908,"date":"2026-06-11T16:00:00","date_gmt":"2026-06-11T16:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/trustedainews.com\/?p=1908"},"modified":"2026-06-11T16:00:00","modified_gmt":"2026-06-11T16:00:00","slug":"quantum-of-promise-how-to-build-a-quantum-chip","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/trustedainews.com\/?p=1908","title":{"rendered":"Quantum of promise: How to build a quantum chip"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>\u2013 Kat Bradshaw. The chip industry is the most complex that you could imagine, and quantum computing, intrinsically, is based on some of the most complex, non-intuitively understandable math that humankind has ever discovered, and now you&#8217;re bringing that together,\u201d says Sven Beyer, a distinguished member of technical staff at chip manufacturer GlobalFoundries.. It isn\u2019t quite the famous Richard Feynman quote from 1964 \u2013 \u201cIf you think you understand quantum mechanics, you don&#8217;t understand quantum mechanics\u201d \u2013 but the sentiment remains the same.. Given the immense computational power quantum computers are theoretically capable of, perhaps one of the more surprising realizations about the technology is that, unlike classical supercomputers that are powered by tens of thousands of processors, quantum computers are powered by just a single QPU, which contains both the physical qubits \u2013 the chips that store quantum information \u2013 and the supporting control hardware.. In 2025, TSMC reportedly produced more than 17 million 12-inch silicon wafers, up from 13 million in 2020, and a figure only likely to increase further as the chipmaker brings additional manufacturing capacity online at sites across the US, Europe, and Asia. Nvidia, the world\u2019s largest chip company, reached a $5 trillion market cap last year, posting data center-specific revenue of $51 billion in the final quarter of 2025 alone.. IBM Albany Lab \u2013 IBM. By comparison, the entire global quantum computing market is currently worth about $1.44bn, with a modest increase expected in 2026. While governments on both sides of the Atlantic have invested heavily in the technology and sought to support home-grown quantum startups, growth in the sector is being driven, in part, by advances in quantum hardware, including QPUs (quantum processing units).. Furthermore, while the number of quantum chips produced during the past 12 months is harder to quantify, it&#8217;s safe to say the figure is closer to the low hundreds rather than the tens of millions.. While the science behind the technology requires an understanding of mathematics and physics that few of us possess, despite Beyer\u2019s observations, quantum chip manufacturing is, in practice, a far less complex endeavor than one might think.. Producing a chip that can power such a system borrows heavily from traditional semiconductor fabrication processes. Furthermore, when compared to transistors, the qubits being placed on the current generation of quantum chips are still relatively large, meaning that in many cases, the etching and lithography techniques needed to fabricate them are less state-of-the-art than the tools being used to manufacture the latest advanced semiconductors.. As more and more predictions surface that claim useful quantum computers will live among us by the end of the decade, understanding and supporting quantum chip manufacturing has never been more pressing.. More in common. One company making such a claim is IBM, which, in November 2025, stated it would achieve quantum advantage by the end of 2026 and is on target to develop a fault-tolerant quantum computer by 2029.. Big Blue began dipping its toes into the quantum pool in the 1980s, but achieved its first major milestone with the launch of its IBM Quantum Experience platform via the IBM cloud in 2016. Since then, the company has been all-in on superconducting quantum computing, a modality where qubits are made using superconducting metal on insulating substrates and cooled to extremely low temperatures.. Its quantum roadmap was updated last year with the expectation that it will be able to offer hardware more powerful than any classical silicon systems before the end of the decade.. IBM Quantum Nighthawk \u2013 IBM. To date, the company has publicly released four QPUs \u2013 Falcon, Eagle, Heron, and Nighthawk \u2013 with Kookaburra and Cockatoo expected in 2026 and 2027, respectively. (The naming convention is reportedly borne out of the director of research and IBM fellow Jay Gambetta\u2019s love of bird watching.). IBM produces its quantum chips at the Albany NanoTech complex in New York state and on a call from IBM\u2019s research center in Yorktown Heights, New York \u2013 two hours away from Albany \u2013 Dr. Oliver Dial, VP for quantum systems at IBM, valiantly attempts to further demystify the technology and explain the approach IBM has decided to throw all its weight behind.. For those without a PhD in physics, at its most basic level, unlike traditional computing operations, which use transistors to process binary bits that adopt a value of either 0 or 1, quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, to store data in both states simultaneously. This is known as superposition, and it allows multiple calculations to be carried out at once, hugely increasing computational power.. \u201cThe reason why superconducting qubits are a really great fit for IBM, and I think a great fit for the world, is that the techniques that we use to build these devices are shared with semiconductor fabrication,\u201d Dial says. \u201cWe build these up additively, by depositing and then etching metals, by depositing and then etching dielectrics, by using lithography, and all the same processes that people use to build conventional CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) chips or any other conventional type of electronics.&#8221;. While Dial notes that there are some important distinctions between the manufacturing of silicon-based CMOS chips and QPUs \u2013 \u201cThe materials are different, and the steps in the process are applied in different orders to get different results\u201d \u2013 the machinery needed to build these quantum chips is largely derived from the tools regularly used by the semiconductor industry as a whole.. \u201cIQM believes that superconducting quantum computers show the most promise,&#8221; Jan Goetz, IQM Quantum Computing. At present, the driving force behind the cost and complexity of advanced GPUs primarily results from the need for extreme ultraviolet lithography tools, like those built by ASML. Dial explains that when it comes to quantum chip fabrication, such advanced technologies just aren\u2019t necessary. Rather, if IBM were to build a \u201cbespoke quantum foundry,\u201d packaging technologies would be more of a priority.. There are also processes used in the development of traditional CMOS chips, such as ion implantation, where impurities are deliberately added to the silicon to engineer electrical properties in silicon wafers, that aren\u2019t necessary when manufacturing quantum chips.. \u201cWe have absolutely no need for that. Impurities are death to us, we don&#8217;t want them around,\u201d Dial says.. Helsinki, Finland-based IQM Quantum Computers is another company focused on the development of superconducting quantum computers. As with IBM, IQM co-founder and CEO, Dr. Jan Goetz, explains that the primary difference between traditional silicon-based semiconductors and the quantum chips the company is producing. at its Finnish site is the materials used to make them.. Like Dial, Goetz, and IQM believe that superconducting quantum computers show the most promise, as, unlike other modalities, superconducting is one of the few technologies that already works today, with the CEO noting that there&#8217;s a very clear engineering roadmap that doesn\u2019t require further scientific breakthroughs, just lots of &#8220;proper engineering,&#8221; which is based on existing semiconductor processes.. When it comes to making superconducting circuits, Goetz says that one of the biggest challenges is mitigating the losses.. \u201cWhat we need\u2026 is these superconducting circuits, as that\u2019s how we implement qubits,\u201d he explains. \u201cBut, the life of those qubits, especially for superconducting, is not very high, sometimes tens or hundreds of microseconds, sometimes milliseconds, and it&#8217;s really defined by the losses of the interfaces.. \u201cIf you have a silicon wafer, just a plain, standard silicon wafer, and then you put these superconducting materials on there, the question becomes: \u2018Which materials actually have as little losses as possible when placed on silicon, whilst being superconducting and also relatively easy to handle?\u2019. \u201cIf you look at what&#8217;s happening in the industry, you\u2019ll see that the workhorse materials are typically metals like aluminium or niobium, or some other kind of combination, including titanium nitride and the like. But it&#8217;s typically some kind of metal or metal compounds that we are using then to create these structures.\u201d. Both Dial and Goetz say that if you were to look at their chips with the naked eye, they would be incredibly similar to typical CMOS chips.. \u2013 Dan Swinhoe. Look a little closer, however, and the differences start to emerge, including the fact that the qubits IBM makes are about a millimeter in length \u2013 \u201cthis thing that we can put in a quantum superposition is so big, I can see it with my naked eye. That&#8217;s kind of mind-blowing.\u201d. It&#8217;s a sentiment echoed by Goetz, who says if you were to look at IQM\u2019s chips from a distance, you probably wouldn\u2019t see a big difference.. \u201cBut, if you zoom in with a microscope and really look at the structures and how the chips have been designed, they do look very different [to traditional semiconductors] because we are not using transistors,\u201d he explains. \u201cThe qubits that we build on the chip, they are still electrical circuits that operate at certain frequencies, but they are not transistors, so the way they look is very different.\u201d. Another difference is that, when compared to traditional silicon chips, superconducting quantum chips have a lot more input\/output than you would typically see in a CMOS chip. For IBM, this means that each qubit requires a couple of analog lines to control it.. As a result, the company invests a lot of energy in the packaging of its chips \u2013 not what goes into the chip itself, but how to mount the chip onto a printed circuit board and make sure it works as intended.. \u201cQuantum device packaging is quite specialized at this point,\u201d Dial says. \u201cWith conventional semiconductors, the sensitive parts of the device \u2013 the transistors, the things that make the current flow around, the way you make your logic work \u2013 are buried. They&#8217;re down in the silicon underneath many layers of metalization and oxide for signal delivery. So, typical packaging would look like coating it in some epoxy so that it doesn&#8217;t oxidize, and then soldering it to a board.. \u201cOur qubits live on the surface of our devices, literally on the top of the silicon surface. The reason why they live there is that we want them to be in an incredibly low-loss environment, and vacuum is a wonderfully low-loss material.\u201d. Consequently, this means that when it comes to packaging quantum chips, IBM can&#8217;t use the same types of tooling that you would use for a conventional CMOS device, as coating the QPU in epoxy would \u201ctotally ruin\u201d its performance.. Additionally, once the chips have been cut from the wafer, dealing with all the individual parts becomes a much slower, more manual operation, Dial explains. It\u2019s an area into which the company is doing a lot of research right now to try to get ready for the future and ensure it can package more complex devices.. Silicon supremacy. Nestled in the heart of North London, a stone\u2019s throw from Caledonian Road station, lives Quantum Motion, a silicon-based quantum computing company using standard semiconductor manufacturing technology.. Almost four years after it first opened, and three and a half years after DCD first visited the lab, the company has grown significantly in size, up from 30 people in 2022 to around 120 today, and has taken over a second facility across the courtyard from its original site.. Founded in 2017 by Professor John Morton and Professor Simon Benjamin, the company was spun out from University College London and Oxford University, where the two professors worked.. \u2013 Sebastian Moss. Unlike IBM or IQM, which are both developing QPUs that have properties in common with traditional CMOS semiconductors, Quantum Motion is developing quantum computers that just run on traditional silicon-based CMOS chips. The hardware is fabricated by GlobalFoundries, which has manufacturing sites in the US, Europe, and Asia.. In September 2025, Quantum Motion delivered a full-stack quantum computer to the National Quantum Computing Centre (NQCC) in Harwell, UK. Its deployment represented the first quantum computer to use 300mm silicon CMOS wafer technology that can be mass-produced using a standard silicon CMOS chip fabrication process in commercial chip foundries.. \u201cEverything you see in this room uses silicon chip technology,\u201d Morton says during a conversation with DCD at the lab. \u201cSo if you&#8217;re going to build a quantum computer, why wouldn&#8217;t you build it out of silicon? The most obvious way to do it is just see if silicon works with quantum computing, rather than finding a different approach and hoping that you can make that work instead.\u201d. One of the first things you see when embarking on a tour of Quantum Motion\u2019s lab is scaled-up mirrored replicas of Quantum Motion\u2019s early chip generations, Bloomsbury, Brixton, and Hoxton \u2013 named after iconic London neighborhoods. Its next-generation. chip, Carnaby, is already in development, with the company typically working to a nine-12 month development cycle for each chip generation in this particular family.. The difference between Bloomsbury and Brixton, Morton explains, is that the latter generations have more advanced quantum dot designs.. \u201cWith Bloomsbury, we first of all showed that we could trap single electrons for the first time, and we created an array of over 1,000 of these quantum dots, and we could address them all and measure them. And then in Hoxton, we\u2019ve been measuring the quantum state of the electrons that are within those and using them to form the basic elements of this QPU.\u201d. Morton explains that the chips developed by Quantum Motion represent a combination of \u201cconventional digital and analog electronics that have been designed to operate at extremely low temperatures,\u201d necessary for qubits to form, whilst also including quantum dots, which trap single electrons that form the qubits.. \u201cIf you&#8217;re going to build a quantum computer, why wouldn&#8217;t you build it out of silicon?\u201d Professor John Morton, Quantum Motion. \u201cPart of what we do is develop models that allow us to predict the behavior of these chips at low temperature, while the other part is to innovate and figure out how we can use this incredible manufacturing technology that puts billions of transistors on a chip and integrates them all together with feature sizes at the nanometer scale, and use that technology as a way to form qubits.. \u201cThe point is, though, we&#8217;re using exactly the same semiconductor technology and exactly the same manufacturing techniques that are used to make conventional chips.\u201d. For Morton and Anna Stockklauser, Quantum Motion\u2019s VP of product, their silicon-based approach to quantum computing just makes the most sense.. \u201cIf you look at all the different approaches to quantum computing, they contrast in that they have differing physical carriers of the information. For some, those are quite exotic and hard to control, and very different from what we currently have in our classical computers,\u201d says Stockklauser. \u201cBut for spins and silicon, the carrier of information is just electrons in those silicon chips, and we already understand the manufacturing process really well, and how to control them and how to build the control electronics that are required.&#8221;. Bloomsbury, Brixton, and Hoxton will all have been made in a foundry next to a chip that was destined for a smart watch, a washing machine, or a car, Morton says.. For all these other quantum approaches, Stockklauser argues, both the manufacturing process for either the chips or the types of traps or chambers that you need to confine those information carriers in, have to be developed from scratch and are, at present, quite immature.. \u2013 Sebastian Moss. Furthermore, for companies like IBM and IQM, which are basing their technology on superconducting qubits, although all three companies are fundamentally using a CMOS-based approach, Morton says Quantum Motion can run its qubits significantly warmer, noting that the quantum computer it has deployed at the NQCC is running at a temperature that is more than 10\u00d7 higher than a superconducting qubit.. This matters, he says, because of the physics of how cryogenic fridges work \u2013 the cooling power squares with the temperature, meaning that if your temperature is 10 or 20 times higher, you can afford to dissipate 100 or 400 times more power, while remaining at a constant heat. Additionally, Morton says Quantum Motion has found that running at a higher temperature also improves performance, as it \u201creduces the wobble\u201d when running different computations.. \u201cThat is hugely enabling in terms of being able to scale up the QPU size.\u201d. Capacity crunch. One of the biggest benefits for quantum companies in need of foundry capacity is that the quantities of chips required to power quantum computers are relatively low.. As Dial mentioned previously, manufacturing quantum chips also doesn\u2019t require state-of-the-art equipment, such as extreme ultraviolet lithography tools necessary to fabricate advanced semiconductors. This means that, in an already supply-constrained industry, fabless quantum companies don\u2019t have to fight the likes of Nvidia or AMD for manufacturing capacity, as those companies work exclusively with foundries such as TSMC, which are focused solely on producing next-generation technologies.. Quantum Motion doesn\u2019t manufacture its own chips \u2013 Morton jokes that when people ask why the company doesn\u2019t have its own foundry, he reminds them of a little company called Apple, which has someone else make the chips it designs, and seems to be doing rather well despite this.. In January 2025, the company announced it was partnering with chipmaker GlobalFoundries (GF) for the development of its processors, with the chips fabricated on GF\u2019s 300mm 22FDX platform, which uses power-efficient Edge processing and system-on-chip integration while offering a temperature range of 1 Kelvin (-272.15\u00b0C\/-457.87\u00b0F) and below.. \u2013 Sebastian Moss. Additionally, the FDX platform also provides a back gate bias capability to support cryogenic tuning and control. GlobalFoundries says this provides a \u201csignificant advantage\u201d compared to bulk silicon solutions for readout and control operations.. Speaking to DCD on a separate call following the tour of Quantum Motion\u2019s lab, GF\u2019s Beyer explains that this FDX platform sets GF apart from other foundries, and it supports FD-SOI (Fully Depleted Silicon On Insulator) technology, a process that involves placing a thin, 10nm silicon sheet on top of an oxide layer to provide better power control.. \u201c[The silicon sheet] acts like an isolator that\u2019s then carried by the silicon wafer substrate, so we can enclose the full electron system into that very thin SOI film,\u201d Beyer explains. \u201cThat has unique features like allowing you much more power control, which is important for quantum, as most systems are operating at millikelvin temperatures.\u201d. While Beyer acknowledges that FD-SOI is not the only solution for fabricating CMOS-based chips, in his mind, it is the most promising. Furthermore, GF is the only company with a \u201cfully feature-enabled IP portfolio\u201d producing chips using this technology in volume.. As a result, he claims that GlobalFoundries is well-positioned to argue that it provides the best design environment for quantum companies, and therefore is working hard to be crowned the quantum foundry of choice amongst companies in need of capacity.. While Beyer is unable to publicly state how much capacity GF has dedicated to fabricating quantum chips, he says that because quantum computing companies require so few chips, the question becomes less about the production capacity and more about the development capacity that a foundry can offer, although \u201ceven that has to remain secret.\u201d. Selling 100 wafers a year to a quantum company will not make you that much money, but offering specialized silicon means you can charge much more for those 100 wafers, he explains. He compares it to medical suppliers who often invest large amounts of money into the development process, but are ultimately able to produce medicine very cheaply, making a return on investment when selling it to suppliers.. \u201cThat\u2019s more the quantum deal,\u201d Beyer says.. IBM fabricates its quantum chips at Albany NanoTech, a joint endeavor between the company and New York State. It&#8217;s also a place where people do research into, amongst other things, the next generations of CMOS and quantum technology, a setup Dial says works well, as it allows both the manufacturing and research teams to collaborate more closely and means there is a bit more room for experimentation.. \u201cIf [a quantum company] went to a foundry like Samsung, where they&#8217;re building their 2nm transistors, they would tell you to go away,\u201d he says. \u201cThey have these hyper-optimized factories that were very expensive to build, are hugely sensitive to contamination, and only manufacture one process. They want to be cranking out these high-value chips as quickly as possible, so in a facility like that, there&#8217;s really no room for experimentation or weird processes.\u201d. \u2013 Sebastian Moss. At Albany NanoTech, however, IBM has the ability to be more experimental because it\u2019s manufacturing chips at such a low volume in comparison to CPUs and GPUs \u2013 \u201cwe\u2019re almost insensitive to the cost.\u201d. As a result, Dial says that IBM has been able to develop technology that is both on par with and more complicated than what you typically see in CMOS, with one of the biggest advancements being in 3D integration.. For example, IBM uses 3D integration to support a multilevel wiring design on its chips that allows it to better control the signals making their way to the qubits in the middle of the chip \u2013 Dial says it&#8217;s just one example of \u201ccool things that you very rarely see in CMOS manufacturing.\u201d. IQM also manufactures its own quantum chips, having built a fab at its Finnish headquarters. In November 2025, IQM announced it was investing more than \u20ac40 million ($46m) to expand its quantum chip production facility in Finland, with the new site almost doubling the cleanroom space and system assembly line capacity that was previously available to the company.. Goetz explains that fabricating its own chips was borne more out of necessity than want, as when the company was founded in 2018, the only way to manufacture quantum chips was in universities or research labs, which often couldn\u2019t meet the quality standards or timelines that IQM needed.. \u201cThis is why we decided to do it ourselves, because big foundries like TSMC are basically not active in the field.\u201d. Goetz echoes comments made by Dial, saying that for foundries operating on the scale of TSMC or Samsung, chip manufacturing is a numbers game, focused on high-volume outputs, and the quantum industry has just not reached that level yet.. From a financial perspective, therefore, Goetz says it&#8217;s very difficult to convince a big player right now to invest in quantum chip manufacturing because the business case just isn\u2019t there yet. However, he believes that this could change in the future when quantum does become more commercialized.. \u201cAs of today, there is not really an alternative [to manufacturing in-house],\u201d he says. \u201cThis doesn&#8217;t mean we don&#8217;t try, or we wouldn&#8217;t like to do it, but we have to go with the speed of the industry.\u201d. Because quantum chip throughput is not as high as traditional semiconductor industries, IQM does not use fully automated tools, which is \u201cgood and bad,\u201d Goetz explains. \u201cThe good thing is the tools that we have are way cheaper,\u201d he says. \u201cBut of course, that comes with a drawback, as we still do stuff by hand, meaning the quality is not where it would be if everything were to be fully automated.. \u201cThese are the trade-offs that we always have to consider. How much does it make sense to invest right now in fully automated tools when the volumes are not there, compared to making small sacrifices on the maturity and quality of the chips? This is where we are today, and there&#8217;s definitely still room to improve if you compare the current state of quantum chip fabrication and semiconductor chip fabrication.\u201d. That said, before you can fabricate a chip, you need to design it, and that\u2019s where another differentiator between classical and quantum chips lies.. In the traditional chip design industry, electronic design automation (EDA) tools such as those offered by Synopsys or Cadence would be used to design chips. However, Goetz explains that those design tools don&#8217;t have quantum features in them, so they cannot be used in the QPU design process.. To overcome this challenge \u2013 or opportunity, as Goetz says he\u2019d rather view it \u2013 IQM has been building its own chip design tool.. \u201cOnce we\u2019ve made a design, we can simulate it and then iterate the simulations until the results are good,\u201d he explains. \u201cThen, because we also have the chip factory and testing capabilities, we can do a tape out and test the chip again in comparison to the simulation.\u201d. Having this full innovation chain integrated in-house has allowed IQM to move very fast compared to its competitors, with Goetz saying that the company has now caught up to or overtaken companies that were operating in the market before IQM was even founded. \u201cThe reason is that we are so tightly integrated on the design and simulation, testing, and fabrication side.\u201d. Quantum sovereignty. Questions and concerns around sovereignty have dominated the classical compute space in the last several years, with President Trump\u2019s push to reshore semiconductor manufacturing in the US one of the most visible examples of this.. In the quantum chip world, issues of sovereignty are not yet so pronounced, but there is an awareness from companies making QPUs.. Beyer says one of GlobalFoundries\u2019 biggest advantages is its large geographic footprint. While chipmakers like TSMC are heavily investing in the US and European manufacturing capacity, the majority of chips made by Taiwanese companies will continue to be fabricated domestically.. \u2013 Sebastian Moss. \u201cIn a sense, we are the most flexible&#8230; and we&#8217;ve proven that we can transfer technologies between our fabs from Asia to Europe to America\u2026 so for us, it\u2019s not a concern. If customers want to fabricate in the US, we can do that, but we can also manufacture in Europe or elsewhere, if need be.\u201d. IQM was more reserved about the question of expanding manufacturing capabilities overseas, with Goetz simply stating that it would approach the situation in an \u201copen-minded way\u201d and that any decision would be weighed up against what was best for the company.. Despite the technology&#8217;s inherent complexities and the \u201cnon-intuitively understandable math\u201d that provides its foundation, it would appear that people are increasingly starting to understand quantum computing \u2013 or at the very least embrace the future possibilities that it could offer.. Dial says that IBM\u2019s mission statement is to bring useful quantum computing to the world, not just the United States, and already, its quantum network has more than 200 members, providing people from industry, academia, and government across the globe with access to its systems.. While the company won\u2019t be challenging TSMC anytime soon in terms of chip wafer numbers, both companies are focused on being at the cutting edge of their respective fields and developing chips that will power the future of compute, be it classical or quantum.. The \u201cmost complex industry you could ever imagine\u201d is about to get a new layer of intrigue.. More in HPC &amp; Quantum. 12 May 2026. 21 Apr 2026<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u2013 Kat Bradshaw. 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